FROM your native language what do you know about grammar?

 FROM Your native language what do you know about grammar?

I’m Kiwale Brasto, Festo. @ 2016

Ruaha Catholic University- Iringa, Tanzania

Published from Kiwale Company Publishers

This handout is here to help all people, therefore all right reserved no one would be allowed to copy, print, or any kind of plagiarism is involved, but read then leave it as it is.

Grammar is a model of competence of a speaker of the language. Means that there is regular and uniform correspondence between what the grammar asserts to be true of the language and what speaker tacitly knows about his or her language (Stockwell, 1988).

Grammar is the whole system and structure of a language(s) in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology whereby syntax is to study various aspects of how sentences are formed and how they are understood in a particular language and in language generally. While morphology refers to how words are formed (Stockwell, 1988). But the other grammatical branches are phonology and semantic but are regarded as a minor because phonology and semantic can be included in a syntax.

Grammar is (the study or use of) the rules about how words change their form and combine with other words to make sentences (walter, 2008)

Generally, grammar refers to the whole system, structure and properties of a particular language with reference of Bena. The following are the descriptive grammar of Bena.

Segmental inventory; Bena has 22 consonants and 5 vowel which each exhibit contrastive length. Bena Consonants include stops, fricatives, affricates, pre-nasalized and approximants. It contrast at the bilabial, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal place of articulation. There is voiced and voiceless consonant.

Examples: stops: [P], [b] in words like [Pu:mula] means “smell good” and [Buda] means “kill”.

Nasal: [n, m] as in word like [ng’a:si] means “njia” and [ma: ma] “older sibling”

Fricative: [F, V] as in word like [fiha] and [viha]

                                                  “arrive”      “crow”

But the vowel of Bena can be front, central and back as front [i, e], central [a], back [u] and [o].

Example [ve: mba] “To cry”

                  [havila] “be witch”

Syllable structure; only open syllables are allowed in Bena word. Initial syllables can occur with or without an onset syllable onsets in Bena may be either simple or complex. Complex onsets include pre-nasalized consonants, the voiceless alveolar, affricate and consonant plus glide sequence which resulted to several syllables types. Syllable with no onset occur only word initially, word final syllable can only contain short vowel, syllable nasal are possible only when [mu-] is reduced to “M”

Example: [u:mwa:na] - word initial syllable.

                 “child”

              [hu:genda] - word final

            “To walk”

Tone; as in other Bantu language tone play important role in Bena. There are both lexical and grammatical tone lexical tone is underlying grammatical tone in Bena occurs when high is assigned to a particular more (as in the case of tense aspect). The tone can be high tone or toneless and each word assigned a single tone but with few exceptions word- final tone is disallowed, but the tone varies according to the geographical location of the speaker of Bena.

Example: [Mu.go:si] means a man.

Bena nouns always have high tone on the prefix and the final vowel always is low and the vowel in between may vary it can be either high or low.

Example: [u: mwa: na] – child

                    [ama: tswi] – Words

Concord agreements, this are types of constraint on the form of words occurring together. They require that one form must change to match the form of something else. Thus whether a verb is singular or plural depend on whether its subject is singular or plural.

Example:     A. iteleha ihyahulya

                        “She/he is cooking food”

                        B. viteleha ihyahulya

                        “They are cooking food”

In a sentence “A” the  morpheme “i” iteleha and ihyhulya show that the sentence are in a 3^rd first singular person but the same sentence in “B” change to “vi” to show that the verb are in plural form. It does so as to have concord agreement.

Tense aspect mood: the tense aspect of Bena are marked using a set of tense aspect prefixes, limited set of suffixes, various inflecting and non inflecting auxiliaries and temporal adverbs and this can be in past, present and future tense.

Example: present [Ndi: gona] “Sleep”

                        Past        [Ndi: ha: gonile] “slept”

                        Future [Ndi: dzi: gona] “will sleep”

The morpheme “Ndi” in present “ha” in past and “dzi” in future show the tense aspect mood.

Basic word order, in Bena the basic word order in SVO where as 5 represent subject, V- verb and O-object. But the intensive sentences that are sentences which do not carry object have the order of SV.

Example: [u mwa: na aitova i:li: bwa]

                        S          V           O

                        “The child is hilting the dog”

                        [u mwayuva ilima]  (intransive sentence).

                               S               V

                        “The women is digging”

But it is also possible to have constructors that contain two post verbal objects.

Example: [U: mwa: yuva avalisidze avana ihyahulya]

                        S                      V         O₁        O₂

It is not obvious strict, it can change the word order.

Question formation

In Bena language there are yes no question and content questions. But both questions have rising intonation sentence finally with yes no question the intonation pattern is the only way that question can be distinguished from declarative, content question. In addition to containing interrogative intonation make use of series of interrogative word which usually occur in “situ”.

Yes no question do not use special question particle or different word order instead are differentiated from statement with rising intonation.

Example:          a. wihelela hunega ululenga neng’uni (declarative)

                        You are going to fetch water today

                        b. wihelela hunega ululenga neng’uni? (Yes or no question)

                        “Are you going to fetch water today?

The only different between “a” and “b” is that the “b” is spoken with rising intonation to mark the question. Among of Bena question words are like “hi” (which).

“linga” how many

“naan” who

“hihi” what

“ndali” when and “panili” when

Negative system: Bena negative system is straight forward. There are 3 negative morpheme that are “si” this occur 1 or two position immediately preceding the subject used in all inflected finite verb forms.

Example:   Ndigona - sindigona or ndisigona.

                   “I sleep”   “I cannot sleep”

“-ta”- used to negative verbal infinitives

It occurs before verbal stem

Example: Wadze – “hi ta dza”

                (come)     (don’t come)

“-tane” used to negative the sub inactive

            It followed by infinitve

Example: bite                tane hubita

                (go)              (don’t go)

Morphophonemic process: one of the processes is glide formation where as Bena does not allow sequences of two non- identical vowels. When a high vowel is followed by non- identical vowel a first vowel becomes a glide. The glide formation accompanied by lengthening of the following vowel. This means that when the high front vowel /i/ is followed by /w/, /e/, /o/ or /u/ it become the glide /j/

Example: mi. aha à  myaaha

                 (year)          (years)

With the high back vowel /u/ glide formation applies only when /u/ is followed by a non- rounded vowel.

Example:        a. u+ a        mu. ana à mwa.ana à “child”

                                                           [mwa:na]

                        b. U+e       hu.eluha à hweeluha à “to climb”

                                                             [hwe:luha]       

But there is exceptional to the glide formation when a high front vowel /i/ is preceded by a prenasalized consonants.

            Example: ndi.adzi.ile à ndaadzileà I have come

                                                     [nda:tsile]

The syllable “mu” can be optionally reduced to a syllabic nasal [m]. This occurs in the noun class prefixes.

Example: a. mudala       [mudala] à [mdala]à “women”

    b. ndihumutova [ⁿdihumutova] à [ⁿdihutova] à I am hitting him/ her.

Verb with reduced morphology; this is another properties of Bena grammar where as there are number of verbs that show reduced inflectional morphology and cannot take any type of derivational morphology. Example “va” (huvebza) “be”.

The auxiliary “va” has the richest morphological making of the morphologically reduced verb. It can take subject marker, tense and aspect, affixes. However unlike full verb “va” cannot take  derivational morphology “va” can take epenthetic “edz” between the root “v” and the final vowel “a” when it need additional more in order to bear tone like “huvedza” because without “huva” would not be long to hear tone. There for epenthetic “edz” is inserted to bear tone. The auxiliary “va” when used together with “na” (and) has the meaning have as the word “vana”. Also “va” is used as auxiliary in a number of tense aspects.

Example:         Ndi: va (I am)

                        Ndi: haave (I was)

                        Ndidzivedza (I will)

Another word with reduced morphology is like “huna” (to exist). The verb used to predict the existence of something. It cannot be marked for tense aspect. It used only in the present tense

Example: ndiwona huna ng’wale njolofu.

Also “gaya” in Bena which means “lack” also it takes no tense or aspect marking. There is no infinitival form of “gaya”. Gaya marked for noun class through consultants used with both the noun class prefix and agreement prefix.

Example: ndili mugaya sida (I have no problem)

                Mugaya mapesa (people with no money)

Formation of commands: in Bena commands are formed using either the imperative form of s verb subjunctive. The imperative form is only used for second person singular. Other persons must use the subjective to form commands. Even with second person singular. The subjunctive is more commonly used in commands as it is seen to be more polite. The word order of commands is the same as declarative.

Example: washe umooto “light the fire”

                        Mubite! (go)

When two commands occur in a same construction both verbs as subjunctive.

Example: mwadze muwashe umooto

                 “Come light the fire”

The negative commands are formed by using the subjunctive form of the negative verb (hutaana) followed by a verbal infinitive.

Example: mutaanage uhuliya ihyahulya.

                        “Don’t eat this food”

Generally scholar claims that grammar concerns with syntax and morphology but not only that but also in a normal sense grammar are used to describe language in general. It is a properties or a whole system of a particular language. Its branches are like phonology, morphology, syntax and semantic. When we say a grammar of language we refer to the system or properties of language in general.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE VEGETATION DISTRIBUTION IN TANZANIA

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCES VEGETATION DISTRIBUTION IN TANZANIA 

I’m Kiwale Brasto, Festo. @ 2016

Ruaha Catholic University- Iringa, Tanzania

Published from Kiwale Company Publishers

This handout is here to help all people, therefore all right reserved no one would be allowed to copy, print, or any kind of plagiarism is involved, but read then leave it as it is.

Vegetation defined as the plants of a particular area which may be very diverse or belong to just one or a few species, depending on climatic conditions, the nature of the soil and human activity.

Basically there are two types of vegetation; 

Natural vegetation and artificial vegetation. Natural vegetation is plants that have not been grown by humans. It doesn’t need help from humans and gets whatever it needs from its natural environment. Some types of natural vegetation are forests, tundra, grass lands, woodlands, baobab and ebony and rainforests. Natural vegetation such as forests can regenerate after a long time which is called the secondary forest, example (http://grade7geography.wikispaces.com/).

Artificial vegetation are plants which are planted by man in a particularly area, it differs from natural vegetation in structure, composition, intensity of management, orderliness and uniformity for example pines, conifers and eucalyptus. Artificial vegetation may help alleviate the damaging consequences of the loss of natural vegetation on ecological (biodiversity), also to ellaviate soil erosion around the environment (Capossoli, 2008).

Therefore there are numbers of factors that influence vegetation distribution in Tanzania. Those are;

Climate, this influences vegetation distribution through temperature and rainfall. Rainfall or precipitation it determine the type of vegetation whether forest, grassland or desert, this because water needed for the plants growth and those areas with high rainfall or precipitation have a lot of vegetation, for example pines, mangrove, woodlands, conifers at coastal areas, Njombe, Iringa, and Mbeya because it receives high rainfall per year. While in dry areas contain poor vegetations for example in central part of Tanzania vegetation which found are shrubs, grasses, and baobab trees. Temperature also plays a big role in distribution of vegetation (flora) i.e. whether the forest is tropical or coniferous or the grassland is temperate or tropical (savanna). Where mean monthly temperature remains above 21⁰C for the year and there is a continuous growing and rainy season, broad- leaved evergreen trees tend to dominate (tropical rainforest). Places where there is a resting period in tree growth, either in hot climates with a dry season or cool climates with short growing season, are more likely to have coniferous trees as their dominant vegetation (Waugh, 2005: 256). Also it controls physiological process in plants like rate of growth, fertilization, seed germination and flowering. Some plants need cool conditions or cool in term of temperature therefore in area with high temperature always vegetations also are few and in cool condition many vegetation are growing and existing healthly throughout of the year, because the amount of soil moisture is high than in area with high temperature for example at Isimani, and Kongwa during summer time.

Soil, in some parts there is considerable local variation in vegetation due to differences in soil and underlying parent rock for example grass on chalk, conifers on sand, and deciduous trees on clay. Plant growth is affect by soil texture, structure, acidity, organic content, depth, water and oxygen content and nutrients (Waugh, 2005: 305). Therefore soil determine the vegetation of a given place, this is because different plants require different types of soil, the soil also determine the amount of moisture it can holds, dense vegetation is found in most fertile soil, for example Nyumba nitu forest, Lupembe forest, and Luponde forest at Njombe the soil it allows different vegetation to be present and in poor soil sparse vegetation are found for example at central zone in Tanzania (Tabora, Shinyanga, Singida, Mara and Dodoma) many parts have poor soil that’s why even vegetation are few in number.

Relief and drainage, some plants grow well in slope area while others need flat area. Different plants also require different altitude for them to grow (George, 2003: 704). There is vegetation that is suite to low area and those suited to high area and even the number of vegetation is high in low land area than in high land area like mountains or any hills have few vegetation in high land, a good example at kilimanjano, and Iringa (Kilolo) there are many vegetation in low land.  Drainage also determine the vegetation of a place, there are plants grow best in areas of good drainage and are many while others grow well in swampy condition for example papyrus which only grow in swampy area, mangrove in shallow salty sea areas therefore in area with few or no drainages have few vegetation comparing to area which have many drainage for example Iringa (Mfindi) have many vegetation comparing to area like Dodoma (Kongwa and Chamwino) few drainages hence few vegetation also.

Human activities, man also contributes the distributions of vegetation of an area. Such activities are planting trees in a place which did not have any vegetation, irrigations and burning vegetations, when the vegetation of areas is burnt the growth of other vegetation are encouraged to grow. While if man clear the area for introducing farms, buildings and infrastructure like roads makes an area to have few or no vegetation, for example area around Kilimanjaro mountain.

Government policy, affect the vegetation distribution, government has  gazetted some areas as forest reserves and National Parks in that area tends to have many species of plants for example areas like Ngorongoro at manyara, mikumi at Morogoro, selous at lindi, mkomazi at Arusha and Serengeti at Kilimanjaro. Also through policy like Cut one tree plant 10 trees and re-aforestation has also affected the distribution of vegetation around the environment (Simiyu et al, 2004). But on other areas which is not kept as a National Parks or Game reserves vegetations are reduced by cutting down vegetation for various activities like buildings, farming, introducing infrastructure therefore even the number of vegetation are few comparing to forest reserves and National Parks are many.

Aspect, (the direction in which a slope faces) affects sunlight, temperatures and moisture. South facing slopes in the northern hemisphere are more favorable to plant growth than those facing north because they are brighter, warmer and drier (Waugh, 2005: 305). Therefore aspect it also influences vegetation distribution in Tanzania. The area facing the sun receives more sunlight and hence is warmer than the leeward side. For example the southern part of Mount Kilimanjaro receives more insulation than Northern shapes facing Kenya. This affects the rainfall regime and vegetation growth such that southern shapes are conducive for plants growth while Northern slopes have poor vegetation.

Wind, affects the distribution of vegetation in Tanzania through the processes of pollination and seed distribution. Winds tend to transport pollens and seeds from one place to another, which leads the coverage of vegetation in particular area to be high than other areas (Waugh, 2005: 257). In addition, the place which have a strong wind there are few vegetations exist like at Tabora, Singida and Dodoma during summer period in this areas or regions experience strong wind, sometime vegetation become destructed than area where wind blows normal like Iringa, Njombe, Mbeya, Morogoro, and Mwanza many vegetations are present.

Generally, vegetation can help to get timber, food to man, climate control, pollution abatement, wildlife maintenance (provides shelter and food for wildlife), and preserving adequate water supplies. In Tanzania various parts Deforestation has been taking place highly, something led some areas which was not experiencing semi desert now experiences it for example at Isimani- Iringa, climate has changed comparing to the previous. Therefore we encourage planting trees and other vegetations in various parts of our country to recover the situation as normal especially areas which now do experience semi- desert and the government has to implement all policies toward environmental conservations.

THE EVIDENCE OF WATER POLLUTION IN THE WORLD

                     THE EVIDENCE OF WATER POLLUTION IN THE WORLD

I’m Kiwale Brasto, Festo. @ 2016

Ruaha Catholic University- Iringa, Tanzania

Published from Kiwale Company Publishers

This handout is here to help all people, therefore all right reserved no one would be allowed to copy, print, or any kind of plagiarism is involved, but read then leave it as it is.

Introduction

Water pollution is the discharge into water of substances that cause unfavorable changes in its quantity and quality of the organisms living in the water. OR

Water pollution is the presence of any foreign substances (organic, inorganic or biological) in water which tends to degrade the quality of water hence constitutes hazard on impact the usefulness of water.

Water pollution can be caused by sewage from domestic households, factories and commercial buildings sewage that is treated in water treatment plants is often disposed into the sea, dumping solid wasted by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans, industrial waste from factories which use fresh water to carry waste from the plant into rivers contaminates water with pollutants such as Lead, mercury and petrochemicals, oil pollution caused by oil spills from tankers and oil from ship travel and burning of fossil fuels into air causes the formation of acidic rains.

 Also water pollution can affect ground water contamination from pesticide causes reproductive damage within wild life in ecosystem, sewage, fertilizers and agricultural runoff contain organic materials that when discharged into waters, swimming in and drinking contaminated water causes skin rashes and health problems like cancer, and ecosystems are destroyed by the rising temperature in water as coral reefs are affected by the bleaching effect due to warmer temperature.

The following are the evidences water pollution

Colour, normally water is colorless, but when some of the substances become added in which are not friendly with water can be polluted. Therefore various water bodies in the world has been polluted by human activities like industries, transport, agriculture and other activities which are done by human, something which has added unwanted materials and makes various water bodies to change in colour and it is when water reaches a point of changing in colour means water has been polluted. A good example of where water has lost its former colour are; Ruaha river-Iringa, Hamahama river- America, Kene river at Germany also Rihogosa dam at Njombe where this dam has been polluted by Kibena industry which directs sewages towards that dam where now water has changed its former colour. Therefore through this evidence it implies that water has been polluted.

Smell, also water in terms of smell especially pure water has no bad smell but when water at any place if some of the unwanted materials has been added into water like garbage, plastic materials (Rambo), water become contaminated final produces a smell which is not conducive to human lives. Here at Iringa town there is Mchambawima Stream as a good example on this; where around that stream there is a bad smell which implies that water has been polluted, therefore this is one of the evidence of water pollution.

Taste of water, under normal circumstance water is tasteless when a person do prefer in tasting by drinking, if that water have no normal taste it is regarded that water has been polluted. A good example of this at Mchambawima stream- Iringa town the taste has changed, Ruaha River, Rihogosa Dam at Njombe, water in terms of taste has changed completely something which implies that water has been polluted. In addition wells’ water which is found near the toilets, taste of water also it is salt due to the streams from those toilets flow towards that wells, something leads water become polluted.

Garbage in water, fourteen billion pounds of garbage which is mostly plastic is dumped into the ocean every year from urban or cities most of that garbage is dumped to the water bodies. This shows the evidence of water pollution because if these substances are dumped into water bodies automatically water becomes polluted

Over 30 billion tons of urban sewage is discharged into water bodies like lakes, rivers and oceans. In many communities this problem arise after heavy rains when storm water containing animal wastes street debris and lawn chemical floods the sewers. As treatment plants become over loaded both runoff and raw sewage are diverted into water bodies. Example New York City alone has more than 500 storm water outlets that overflow in heavy rains pouring some 65 billion gallons of untreated sewage (about 10% of the city’s total sewage

Extinctions of living organisms like fishes, frogs and other living organisms, Aquatic ecosystems continue to be heavily degraded putting many ecosystem services at risk for example at Rihogosa dam 10 years ago many species of fish was there, though dumping unwanted materials in water has led such species to become disappeared up to now only Tilapia remained. These aquatic animals has faced extinction rate of five times more than that of terrestrial animals

Generally, the most useful strategy for controlling water pollution is to avoid producing or releasing unwanted or unfavourable substances into the environment in the first place. Industries can recycle or re use materials that otherwise could be discharged into the waste stream.

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THE WAY NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION ALTERED ENVIRONMENT CONSEQUENTLY ENVIRONMENTAL DESTRUCTION

B. F. KIWALE

P.O BOX 774

IRINGA

© Kiwale, F. Brasto 2015

ISBN 9976 911 49 1

The first handout 2016, may. 28.

Printing and publishing consultancy by

Kiwale Associates/ TFC, P.O Box 326,

Iringa, Tanzania.

RUAHA CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY- IRINGA, TANZANIA

Introduction

Neolithic revolution or New Stone Age, begin with the introduction of farming, dating various from C 9000 BCE in the Near East C 7000 BCE South East Europe, C 6000 BCE in East Asia and even later in other regions. This is the time when cereal cultivation and animal domestication was introduced (Violatti, 2014).

Neolithic revolution, the most important technological development ever to occur in human history was the domestication of plants (agriculture) and animals (pastoralism). Together these developments are called the Neolithic Revolution and they allowed the development of urban centers (towns and later cities), trade and most of the other things we consider to be components of “civilization” (Bottema, 1990:1).

Neolithic Revolution was the gradual change from food collection to food production, which takes several millennia. Methods of collecting food by hunting, fishing and gathering plants or fruits were gradually replaced by animal husbandry and agriculture. It goes hand in hand with a change from a nomadic way of life to a sedentary lifestyle, initially half-sedentary (Heise, 1996).

Generally, Neolithic Revolution was the transformation of human societies from being hunter- gatherer based to agriculture. The shifting from hunting and gathering to agriculture led to permanent settlements the establishment of social classes and the eventually rise of civilization. This process began around 10,000 BCE and lasted the thousands of years with each building block along the way shaping human lives today.

A short history of Neolithic Revolution

Prior to 10,000 BCE, most of the world's inhabitants were nomads, foraging for food with little or no structure to their communities. Early hunter-gatherers lived in small groups, accumulating few goods, and moving from place to place in search of food. Because of their constant movements family sizes remained small.  These people learned to hunt with stone axes, use fire for  cooking meat and plants, and they also began to share what they learned with others  creating separate cultures. Around 200,000 years ago, a new species emerged and they are called Homo sapiens. The Homo sapiens eventually developed greater intellectual and linguistic capabilities which allowed them to communicate more effectively, develop better tools, weapons, and migrate farther. These changes were introduced by agriculture which affected the way of living and how it used the earth including forest clearance, root crops and cereal cultivation that can be stored for long periods of time. Later the development of new technologies for farming and herding such as plows and irrigation system (agriculture in general) became intensive something implied food available for feeding population where social and political organization as the population density of the village increased, finally people left hunting and gathering to domestication of plants and animals (Violatti, 2014).

The characteristics of Neolithic Revolution (before and after)

Before	After
—  People were nomadic —  People lived in small bands ·         People were either hunters or gatherers —  Food shortages	—  People settled down in one place —  Large populations lived in villages —  People farmed and had many specialized jobs. —  Food surpluses (extra) —  People domesticated animals

 The following are the reasons of Neolithic Revolution altered the environment consequently environmental destruction. As it explained here under each;

Population growth has triggered at the very point in time when societies adopted agricultural mode of production (Petersen, 2010:14). It was when people increased and food became scarce and people started to find the way how will they get food to feed the population, where seems that food can be obtained from the nature (environment). Therefore, people decided to start clearing the trees around the environment in order to get land for agriculture where environment started to be destructed. Also they set fires to the land, these fires altered the soil and opened the land up to erosion by wind and water because no trees which prevent soil erosion and finally area become desert or semi- desert. For example, North India until this time is semi-desert and Middle East likewise.

Growth of towns and cities, Neolithic Revolution as a period of technological changes by man that is from hunters and gatherers societies to agricultural societies contributed much to the emergence of towns and cities like Jericho (in the Jordan valley) and Catal Höyük in Turkey, which show the great diversity of forms of inhabitation. Because of the long time span between the building of these cities and the bloom of the city-states around 3000 BCE, (Heise, 1996). Through it caused the increase in number of people as the result of cities and towns, where altered environment by clearing the trees in order to get area for settlement consequently led to the environment destruction. Also people cleared trees in order to prepare area for infrastructures like roads and other path ways something led to environmental destruction due to that.

Mining, smelting and casting, metals and metal ore were collected in Neolithic period where after the tools became improved people started to extract minerals from the land especially to area where trees has been cleared, something led the area left with various holes and no vegetation which keeps environment healthly. For example Simple copper artifacts (pins) have been found in a Neolithic village in Turkey and dated shortly before 7000 BCE.  Therefore digging these minerals on the earth’s surface destructed the soil by leaving it bare and easy to be eroded by agents like water and strong blowing wind. Later on many environmental problems like desertification, drought, floods occurred and changes the situation of the environment because it involved various issues like clearing trees, digging holes, channelization and others (Heise, 1996). All these keeps the environment necked where the stored CO₂ in that tree goes direct to atmosphere and the emitted CO₂ by human being goes direct also to the atmosphere which contribute to the Greenhouse gases finally temperature increase on the surface.

The establishment of permanent settlement, often led to rapid deterioration of the local natural environment, through Neolithic Revolution they cause man or people to settle permanently. Permanent settlement brought new ways of social organization as the subsistence strategies of Neolithic communities became more efficient, the population of the different settlements increased (Violatti, 2014). Therefore it was a starting point to clear the trees to the land for construction of houses, roads, dams and canals while these trees was much important to keep environment healthly but became opposed and threatened the biodiversities found in that trees (Swanson, 1994: 85). These were the major source of biodiversity loss and erosion to the land because area was open for anything to take place. In addition tree covers reduced by cutting of timber for fuel, for agriculture use and for domestication of animals which prevents the regeneration of trees and finally led to destruction of environment.

Animal domestication, animals which domesticated by man was sheep, cattle pigs and dogs around the environment where there was an availability of fresh grasses, this because, by then man started to engage in keeping and domesticating animals as a workforce, as the time goes these kind of animals increased and the rate of destructing the environment increased too due to large number of animals with a small area therefore land became eroded, also destructed the small trees without growing further. Through that man was in position on destructing the environment around him. In addition these kind of animals normally produces methane gas which is included as among the Greenhouse gas which is playing the role of destructing the atmosphere later on harmful sun rays starts to come direct to the earth’s surface to change the environmental climate finally area become desert, semi-desert, drought, flooded and also affects the growth of vegetations. Therefore through these environments become in position of being destructed either direct or indirect (Hermansen et all, 2011).

Crop cultivation, it involves growing of crops such as sorghum, beans, wheat and others, it occurred when an individuals improved their tools which facilitated them to plant crops, harvest and store crops more efficiently than during the period of hunting and gathering. They were using metal tools and plow which enabled them to grow crops on large areas of land, something makes them to clear vegetation in large quantity so as to wide up their farms where the environment started to change in climate because area is bare and erosion on soil taking place intensive. Also crop cultivation facilitated population increase in size because food is available, more over people cleared area for settlement. Therefore through these occasions environment become destructed (Lewis, 2005: 55-60).

Generally, population increase, development of cities and towns, extraction of minerals and permanent settlement of people during Neolithic revolution did not occur overnight, the transition from hunter-gather society to an agricultural society took thousands of years to complete. Therefore Neolithic revolution is still dominating our everyday lives and its impacts is still altering the environments consequently environmental destruction, this lead to continuous debate between environmentalist themselves toward the environmental conservation and protections. Therefore we advice to plant trees around the environment also implement all policies relating to environmental conservation in order to keep the environment healthly than destructing it.

REFERENCE AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

REFERENCE

Bottema, R. (1990). Man’s Role in the shaping of Eastern Mediteraninean landscape. Nethaland: State University of Groningen.

Heise, J. (Feb 17, 1996). Prehistory of the ancient near, East including: Neolithic, Chalcolithic.

https://personal.sron.nl/~jheise/akkadian/prehistory.html

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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Heise, J. (Feb 17, 1996). Prehistory of the ancient near, East including: Neolithic, Chalcolithic.

https://personal.sron.nl/~jheise/akkadian/prehistory.html

During the Neolithic a ''revolution'' takes place, called the Neolithic revolution (the term was first used by V.G. Childe in 1936). Despite its name it is a very slow and gradual change from food collection to food production, which takes several millennia. Methods of collecting food by hunting, fishing and gathering plants/fruits were gradually replaced by animal husbandry and agriculture. It goes hand in hand with a change from a nomadic way of life to a sedentary lifestyle, initially half-sedentary”.