CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAND USE CONFLICT BETWEEN FARMERS AND HERDERS IN KITETO DISTRICT

CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAND USE CONFLICT BETWEEN FARMERS AND HERDERS IN KITETO DISTRICT

I’m Kiwale Brasto, Festo. @ 2016

Ruaha Catholic University- Iringa, Tanzania

Published from Kiwale Company Publishers

This handout is here to help all people, therefore all right reserved no one would be allowed to copy, print, or any kind of plagiarism is involved, but read then leave it as it is.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAND USE CONFLICT BETWEEN FARMERS AND HERDERS IN KITETO DISTRICT

Conflict between farmers and herders goes back to the earliest written records and mythically symbolised in many cultures (Chatwin, 1989). According to Biblical records Cain who is described as a crop farmer slew his younger brother Abel who was a shepherd because of jealousy and anger. According to Benjaminsen et al (2009), the conflict between these two brothers is the archetypal example of the tension between sedentary farmers and migrating pastoralists. Hussein (1998) posits that the relations between farmers and herders have always moved between cooperation, competition and conflicts.  Besides that, Benjaminsen et al (2009) argues that although historically there has also been complementarity and mutual benefits between these two groups, today this complementarity has in many parts of Africa been replaced by competition, due to population growth and agricultural policies.

In recent decades farmer-herder conflicts in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa have escalated into widespread violence, loss of property, massive displacement of people and loss of lives (Hussein et al., 2000). In Tanzania for instance, farmer-herder conflicts have increased in magnitude and spread southward and south eastwards of the country (Mwamfupe, 2015). Increasing in conflicts appears to threatening relative peace and security which Tanzania has enjoyed since independence. These conflicts have in most cases accompanied by massive death of herders and farmers, destruction of crops, house and the injury or killing of animals. For instance, on 27th October, 2008 fighting involving peasants and farmers of Mabwegere village, Kilosa District, Morogoro region erupted. About eight people were killed and more than 832 villagers took refuge in neighbouring villages. A similar type of conflict broke in Kilosa district, Morogoro in 2000 and more than 15 people were killed (LHRC, LEAT and LRRRI, 2008). In 2013/ 2014 about 15 people were killed in Kiteto because of land use.

 Farmers – herder conflict in Tanzania in one hand have been caused by natural resources scarcity, inequitable access, the  non-recognition of traditional  rights,  agricultural  encroachments,  inappropriate  cattle  management  system,  grazing  land  encroachments, obstructions of pastoral routes, crops damage and in some case corruption ( Adebayo et al., 2008 ; Ofuoku  et al., 2010; Olabode  et al., 2010; Benjaminsen  et al., 2012 and Mwamfupe , 2015).   and  on the other hand have been contributed  by land tenure contradictions between customary and granted land rights (Simbarashe, 2012, Mwamfupe , 2015) and accumulation of land in the hands of big national and  multinational companies, leaving small-scale producers landless (Chachage, 2010).

Climate change however, can impact the natural resources that herders and crop farmers are competing for and thereby increase their insecurity, leading to conflict (Alkassoum, 2006; Barnett and Adger, 2007; Muna, 2009). changes in climate patterns such as significant rainfall variability or the increase in temperatures lead to less water, less pasture, crop failure, failure in livestock’s productivity, and health issue and  therefore, increase in famers, pastoralists and agro pastoralists vulnerabilities (Sanfo et al, 2015). The more they become vulnerable to climate change impacts, the more their exposure to food, economic, health and environmental insecurity will increase and thereby the increase also in their insecurity. The magnitude of their insecurity will determine the risk of conflict (Sanfo et al, 2015).

A number of studies conducted recently in Tanzania have recognized that CC & V is happening and is coupled with significant impact on various natural resources including agriculture which is the main source of livelihood in rural areas (Majule et al., 2008; Majule, 2008; Agrawala et al., 2003). Despite the fact that climate change has potential to cause conflict there is no author that has tried to link climate change and the persisting conflicts in different areas of Tanzania.   So far  the extent to which climate change is relevant for conflicts is currently discussed controversially and not yet fully understood (Schilling, 2010), Keefer (2009) and Brancati (2007) argue that climate change can cause resource scarcity, which may trigger competition and a reduction of governments’ capacity to provide for people’s needs. On contrary Righarts, (2009) maintains that climate change is happening, but people can adapt smoothly without resorting to conflict. Furtermore, Brancati (2007) and Slettebak (2010) point out that climate change-induced disasters for example drought and the rise of the sea level cannot cause conflicts or threaten global peace and security; instead they unify people and change their conflict relationships. Taking into account the possibility of climate change to cause conflicts and the existing controversy, this paper therefore explores the contribution of climate change to the recurring farmer-herder conflicts in Tanzania.

Climate Trend in Kiteto District from 1984 To 2015

The Kibaya meteorological station in Kiteto district had no record of rainfall data earlier than 1996. However the record of 19 years between 1996 and 2015 show the decrease of rainfall at the rate of 14.545 mm per annum. The trend of the same 19 years in the central zone shows the decrease of rainfall at the rate of 6.437 mm per annum (Figure 1). Generally the analysis of rainfall trend for 31 years from 1984 to 2015 in the central zone shows the decrease of rainfall at a rate of 3.0 mm (Figure 2). On the other hand the analysis of annual average temperature over a period of 31 years 1984-2015 showed an increase on average annual temperature at the rate of 0.033 units per annum over the whole central zone (Figure 3).          

Figure 1: Annual rainfall trends of Kiteto district and the Central zone from 1996 to 2015

Source: Dodoma and Kibaya Meteorological Stations (2016).

Figure 2: Annual rainfall trend of the central zone from 1984 to 2015

Source: Dodoma Meteorological Station (2016).

Figure 3: Average annual temperature trend from 1984 to 2015.

Source: Dodoma Meteorological Station (2016).

The response of the interviewed respondents from Laalala and Olpopong’ villages in Kiteto district were compared with the empirical data. The results show that the experience of both farmers and herders closely related to empirical analysis of rainfall and temperature trends. Majority of the farmers and herders reported to experience the decrease of rainfall and increase of temperature. They further reported that drought has increased significantly compared with earlier years (Table 1). Moreover the shift or rain season (onset and sessation), the decreased wet months and the prolonged spell of dry weather were reported (Table 2).

Table 1: Household responses (in %) to selected climatic parameters

Trend Village	Increasing			Decreasing			Fluctuating			No Change
	Rainfall	Temp.	Drought	Rainfall	Temp.	Drought	Rainfall	Temp.	Drought	Rainfall	Temp.	Drought
Olpopong’	3.1	93.8	90	90.6	0.0	10	3.1	6.2	0.0	3.1	0.0	0.0
Laalala	2. 6	100	94.7	94.8	0.0	5.3	2. 6	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0

Source: Fieldwork, 2016.

Table 2: Herders and farmers experience to shift of seasons

Months

Jan

Feb

Mar

April

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Past experience

Present experience

Key

= Wet season

=Dry spell

Source: Fieldwork, 2016.

 Impacts of climate change on farmers and headers

Interview with farmers and headers indicated that the increase in Temperature and the decrease in rainfall affected both of the two actors. Major four impacts to farmers identified during the study include crop failure, low yield, drying of water sources and the occurrence of pest and diseases. On the other hand herders have been affected by shortage of pasture, shortage of water, emergence of diseases and demolition of the livestock water infrastructure locally called “malambo” especially during heavy but short lived and destructive rains. Table 3 and 4 below summarizes the response of farmers and herders respectively to the identified impacts of climate change.

Table 3: Impacts of cc to farmers                     Table 4: Impacts of cc to herders

Source: Field work 2016 

The role of climate change on farmers-herders conflicts in Kiteto district

To depict the place of climate change on persisting farmer-herder conflicts, the study investigated the timeframe of conflict occurrence focusing on farming calendar and the main seasons in the year. About 44.7% of the farmers interviewed says conflicts usually occurs during the time of farm preparation and harvesting period as compared to 28.9 and 26.4 percentages who said conflicts occurs during time of farm preparation and harvesting respectively.

On the other hand, respondents from both villages were asked to tell in which season conflicts occurs, Most of the respondents (38.7%)shows that conflict occurs during dry season, 32.3% shows conflicts occurs during the wet season and 29.0% says conflicts occurs both during the wet and dry seasons.

Regards to adaptaion, 36.8% of the interviewed farmers adapt to the low production by changing the traditional crop varieties to drought resistant varieties, 32.4% adapt by opening new crop fields elsewhere within or nearby villages, 14.7% expand their current crop fields and 29.7% said they use other adaptation strategies including migrating to other areas outside the district. 

To adapt to pasture shortage, 87% of the pastoralists interviewed reported to adapt by searching for new pastures in different areas, only 13% reported to selling livestock and use other adaptation strategies. In response to massive death of livestock caused by shortage of pasture, pastoralist opt to shift seasonally to areas with good pasture land, while others switch from being pure pastoralist to agropastoralist in order to utilize the crop remains to feed their livestock during the dry season.

Farmers and pastoralist were also asked to point out the adaptation strategies toward shortage of water in their areas. Large portion (82.1%) of respondents interviewed reported to search water from other villages compared to 5.3% from farmers based village who adapt using the same technique. On the other hand most farmers (78.9%) adapt by digging shallow wells in the seasonal rivers as compared to 14.3% of the farmers who use shallow wells during the period of water shortage. Other adaptaion measures which were seen insignificant were rainwater haversting (0% Olpopong’ & 3% Laala) and Selling livestock (1% olpopong’ & 0% Laala).

In the course of adapting to climate change impacts, both farmers and pastoralist communities faces challenges which might have been contributing to the faremrs-Herders conflicts in the study area. Some of the challenges pointed out were, shortage of land for opening new fields (51.6%), competition with herders (35.9%), lack of climate information (14.1%), financial constraints (10.9%) and the closure of the traditional routes/pario for livestock (1.6%)

The changing Temperature and Rainfall trends in Kiteto District

The comparison of rainfall trend in 19 years between Kiteto district and the whole central zone shows that in Kiteto district rainfall decreased approximately twice the general trend of the central zone. This means Kiteto district is more vulnerable to climate change. The vulnerability of the area has also been influenced by the ongoing large scale deforestation due to expansion of fields especially in villages were the population of farmers dominates. This is in accordance with report of household survey in Laalala village were 39.5% claimed that the decrease of rainfall has been attributed by clearance of vegetation. Moreover during focus group discussion, one farmer in Laalala village claimed that:

‘‘The environment here was not as it appears today, the vegetation has been cleared a lot, this has resulted into a drastic rainfall decrease, we are to be blamed, we are punished by our actions’’

Generally in the central zone temperature has increased by 1.4^oC between 1984 and 2015. These findings are in line with the prediction of WMO, 2003, IPCC, 2006, and UNEP, 1989 cited in Ngaira (2007) that the current rate of emission of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide is expected to cause a rise in global temperatures of between 1.5 to 4.5^oC in the year 2030. Little annual temperature variation is observed between 2004 and 2015 compared with annual variation between 1984 and 2003. The R² value between 1984 and 2015 was found to be 0.5 while 0.7 between 2004 and 2015. Therefore temperature has been increasing at an alarming rate between 2004 and 2015 compared with earlier years. According to Mary et al., (2009) increased temperature also increase evaporation rates of soil and water bodies as well as evapotranspiration rate of plants, and increase chances of severe drought. This concurs with the experience of villagers who reported the persistence of drought in recent years.

Perceived impacts of climate change to farmers and herders in the study area

Impacts to farmers

According to David et al., (2013), crop sensitivity to extreme heat days will remain a severe constraint to crop production for the foreseeable future. Further increases in temperature will contribute to greater vapour pressure deficit and water stress, and will probably also cause direct heat damage to be increasingly common. Based on the households findings most of the respondents interviewed reported that climate change has led to crop failure due to increasing extremes of heat and water stress (Plate 1).  This claim was supported by both key informants and focus group discussants that were consulted in both villages. For instance during the focus group discussion in Laala village one of the farmers argued;

‘‘The temperature is very high here, there is no rain, you can see crops are drying, the situation is very tough’’

Plate 1: Dried young maize plants

Source: Fieldwork (2016)

Crop failure was reported to result into low crop yield and hence food shortage. According to farmers, low crop yield has been caused partly by the decreasing soil fertility and poor farming practices such as overgrazing and over cultivation, but mainly by the unpredictable rain patterns and temperature increase. They further argued that maize production has drastically declined with years due to increasing drought. One of the farmers argued during FGD;

“Drought has been the major threat now days, in an area we used to get more than 15 bags of maize previously, we now hardly get 4bags, it’s dry all over!”

These findings are in line with NAPA, (2007) observation that in Tanzania average maize yield will decrease by 33 per cent countrywide with an increase in temperature and reduced rainfall, as well as a change in rainfall patterns. The University of Queensland media release (2013) also reported that, crop yields do decrease as temperature rises and the number of days above optimum temperature increases.

Persistence of pest and diseases cases was also reported by farmers from Laalala during FGD. According to them temperature increased the persistence of pests especially maize stalk borer. This is also supported by Rosenzweig et al., (2000), who argues that pest and disease occurrences often coincide with extreme weather events and with anomalous weather conditions, such as early or late rains, and decreased or increased humidity.

1.1.1        Impacts to herders

Findings from the household’s indicate that, 33.7% of respondents perceived that water shortage is due to climate change. Respondents interviewed acknowledge that, in their area they don’t have surface water sources such as rivers and water springs. Both FGD and discussion with key informant revealed that, during the past the traditional dams plus water flowing in the gullies were sufficient for both livestock and domestic use. They further pointed out that with time the traditional dams (malambo) are drying up (Plate 2), the flowing gullies are rare and the availability of the ground water is not granted especially with the shallow wells.  During the focus group discussion one discussant argued:

 “We are real suffering, you cannot dig a shallow well and get enough water to satisfy all the animals, wells are always fed with muds and cost us in de-silting them”

Moreover, herders noted the population increase due to in-migration from neighboring villages and thus number of animals has also increased, this in turn increases competition for resources including water.

Plate 2:  Dried Olpopong’ gully

Source: Fieldwork, (2016)

The study noted that as drought increases the distance to grazing and water sources also increase. Based on respondents, the distance to water sources in time of normal droughts is about 3.5km and 10-12km during the intensive drought. During the focus group discussion one discussant aged around 50 years old admitted that, now days they spend more than a day to walk with their livestock to water sources contrary to the old time that they used to spend less than an hour.

The study however, through key informant interview and focus group discussion realized that, pasturing lands are likely to completely disappear and the few available are unable to cater for current need. 61.9% of respondents interviewed claimed that shortage of pasture has been caused by persistent drought condition and 38.9% due to population increase. It was also realized during FGD that the two factors are perceived by herders as the major cause of the loss of the pasture land. 

 During the interview with the Livestock officer it was noted that in the past, during the wet season livestock keepers used to graze animal in the high lands/areas close to their settlements and during the dry season they migrate or shift into the low lands (mbugani) in search for pasture and water for their Livestock.  According to the livestock officer this routine is no longer operating efficiently simply because most of pasturing land has been turned to farm land and settlement areas by migrants. The area is experiencing high influx of migrants from nearby districts and thus making the population to increase drastically. In 1988 the population of Kiteto district was 74,460 people while 152,296 people in 2002 (URT, 2006) and 244,669 people in 2012 (URT, 2013).

According to the respondents changing in climate in one hand has led to in ability of pasturing land to offer enough pastures for their animals and on the other hand it has led to the emerging of new grass species which are poisonous. The emerging of these grasses has been a threat to the headers and their animals.  Headers admitted to abandon their pasturing land and start to relay on farmers farming plots and other open space area as an alternative measure because of fear to lose their livestock.

Headers admitted that in the old times when climate was stable and the population was reasonable they used to practice what they call “olalei” (fallowing) this practice enabled them to survive with their animals throughout the year without distorting the environment or involving in conflicts with other land users. Now days because of unpredictable rainfall and temperature pattern this practice is no longer in play.

Changes in the climate has given rise to the emergence of diseases (disease outbreaks) which were previously not seen as important e.g. PPR, RVF and CCPP. These diseases were neglected because their effects were insignificant. But the change in the temperatures and humidity has created favorable conditions for the microorganisms responsible for the diseases to flourish. On the other hand the animals’ immune system had not been prepared and is weak against these new types of diseases. As a result most of the animals succumb and result into death. These findings corresponded to the findings of FAO (2008), which reports that there is clear evidence that climate change is altering the distribution, incidence and intensity of animal and plant pests and diseases.

The linkage between climate change and farmer-herder Conflicts

Overview of farmers-headers conflict in Kiteto District

Kiteto District that lies upon a frontier of primarily agriculturally-oriented communities and land uses characteristic of most of the central plateau did not experience much conflicts in the past .The area had no conflict because the land and water resources available were sufficient to both farmers and livestock keepers.  As Tanzania’s human population and demand for land has increased, putting pressure on the fairly densely populated central regions, farmers of varying scale have increasingly targeted the relatively low-density, semi-arid pastoralist landscapes of the Maasai Steppe. As a result, Kiteto District has become a touchstone of tensions over land use and land tenure between different ethnic groups and land users. Outbreaks of violence in this part of the Maasai Steppe over land are not unheard of, often when pastoralists evict farmers who they believe have encroached on their pasture land (Nelson et al, 2012)

A key dynamic in such confrontations, and the processes of land encroachment that underlie them, is the notion that Maasai are ‘nomadic’ and that much of the Maasai Steppe is ‘unused’ land, a notion shared by neighboring agricultural communities and policy makers alike. This perceived vacancy is an illusion, reflective of the seasonal rotation of traditional Maasai land uses between different wet and dry season pastures designed to allow areas to recover or to avoid areas at different times of the year due to considerations relating to livestock disease, wildlife distributions, the presence of minerals (e.g. salt for livestock), terrain, and forage conditions ( Nelson et al, 2012).

Influence of climate change on the persisting conflicts

Climate change has led to increase in resources scarcity and food shortage. To cope and adapt to increasing resource scarcity and food shortage farmers and headers in Kiteto have been using different adaptation strategies of which have sparked conflicts between farmers and headers. Among the adaptation that have been adopted and seem to sharpening the conflicts include the adoption of drought resistant crops.

Based on household findings 32.4% of farmers interviewed revealed that they are now plant pigeon pea - the drought resistant crop to adapt to crop failure and low crop yield. The study noted that, though adoption of pigeon pea has been very useful to farmers it has trigged conflicts between farmers and headers simply because pigeon pea seems to delaying headers to graze on farmland after the harvest of maize.

Previously headers used to graze on farmland freely, based on literatures it’s argued that, allowing livestock to graze on farm land after harvest it was of advantage to both farmers and headers.  Headers benefited from post-harvest stubble meanwhile farmers’ benefited from manure. These inter dependence and complementarity was only possible because farmers used to plant maize only. But today it’s impossible because farmers are now planting maize and pigeon pe on the same plot and pegion pea takes long time to mature as compare to maize. The time difference has lead to tension between headers and farmers and therefore conflicts.

 During the interview with the key informant it was revealed that apart from time difference of maize and pigeon pea maturity, conflicts broke up because headers have been forcefully grazing on farmer’s pigeon pea simply because they are palatable and they are very rich in protean which leads to more production of milk.

The other adaptation that was identified and seems to create tension between farmers and headers is the expansion of farm land. About 27% of farmers interviewed admitted that because of climate change they have been forced to expand the farm land as an adaptation strategy to increasing low yield. Expansion of farm land has led to conflict because farmers have encroached area which were set aside for pasturing. Headers claimed that most of their areas have been turned to farmland something which is threatening their survival. Interview with the key informant indicate that during the past five years, encroachment and acquisition of pastoralists’ communal grazing lands has picked up markedly.

Interview with the key informant indicate that more than half of the areas used to be grazing land has been turned to farm field. They argued, for instance, the sokota village which was previously used by herders from olpopong’ during time of pasture and water shortage has now turned into farm lands, livestock can no longer access Sokota gully which is the only reliable water source during the dry season.

Also respondents mentioned migration as the other adaptation strategy that they have been using to adapt to pasture and water shortage and it is seen to contribute to increasing conflicts. About 82.1% and 87% of respondents claimed that, headers have been migrating to area with water and pasture respectively. Headers claimed that on course of migration they have been involved into conflict with farmers when their animals graze on farmer’s land. Headers claimed that their livestock have been entering in farmlands because the stock routes locally know as pario have been narrowed by farm land. During the focus group discussion it was revealed that several stock routes have been narrowed and some have completely disappeared. For stance Olpopong’ –Makami stock route is now very narrow, Olpopong’ – Sokota and Olpopong’ – Laingati stock route area about to disappear.

 During the focus group discussion one participant aged 45 years old said, “Livestock could graze freely in open fields with minimal supervision but now day it is not possible because all open field are now farm land.  I always go out with one of my family member to look after the livestock”. He farther claimed that, “keeping the animals out of farm field is not manageable with one person today”. The other participant aged 60 said that “when I came here in 1970s there were few people around. it was grazing land occupied by pastoralist”

    

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